Caste And The Caste System

The caste system is arguably the most significant and unique social institution of India. It is a highly complex and deeply entrenched system of social stratification that has governed the lives of people on the subcontinent for centuries. As a social institution, caste is a system of structured inequality based on principles of hierarchy, exclusion, and separation. While it is often associated with Hinduism, caste-like practices and hierarchies are also found in other religious communities in India, such as Muslims and Christians.

Caste In The Past

In its classical form, the caste system was based on a combination of two distinct concepts: Varna and Jati.

• Varna: This refers to the four-fold hierarchical division of society found in ancient Hindu texts like the Rig Veda and the Manusmriti. The four Varnas are:
  1. Brahmins: Priests and scholars, at the top of the hierarchy.
  2. Kshatriyas: Rulers and warriors.
  3. Vaishyas: Merchants and traders.
  4. Shudras: Peasants, artisans, and labourers.

  A fifth category, often called the 'panchamas' or 'avarnas', existed outside this four-fold system. These were the so-called 'untouchables' who were considered ritually impure and were assigned the most polluting and menial tasks.

• Jati: This is the term for the actual, functioning local communities that make up the caste system. There are thousands of jatis and sub-jatis across India, and this is the level at which caste operates in everyday life. While the Varna system provides a broad, all-India framework, a person's primary identity and social position is determined by their Jati.

The core principles governing the caste system in the past were purity and pollution, which dictated strict rules of separation between different castes, and hereditary occupation, where a person's work was determined by the Jati they were born into.

Colonialism And Caste

The arrival of British colonialism had a profound and complex impact on the institution of caste. The British administrators, in their attempt to understand and govern Indian society, took a keen interest in the caste system.

• The Census and Official Categorization: The British made caste the central instrument of their administrative policy. The decennial Census, which began in the late 19th century, included detailed questions about caste. This process of officially counting and recording castes had a major effect: it gave a new, rigid, and pan-Indian identity to what was previously a more fluid and regional system. People became more conscious of their caste identity, and the hierarchy between different jatis became more formalized and contentious.
• Land Revenue Policies: Colonial land revenue settlements often granted land rights to upper-caste groups, further solidifying their economic dominance.
• Affirmative Action: Towards the end of their rule, the British also initiated policies of affirmative action. They identified certain castes and tribes as 'Depressed Classes' (who later became the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes) and provided them with special assistance and reservations, laying the groundwork for the post-independence reservation policy.

In essence, colonialism did not create caste, but it fundamentally changed its nature, making it more rigid, uniform, and a subject of modern administrative and political contention.

Caste In The Present

In contemporary India, the institution of caste has undergone significant changes, but it remains a powerful social reality.

• Weakening in the Public Sphere: In the urban public sphere, the direct, visible aspects of caste (like untouchability and restrictions on social interaction) have significantly weakened due to urbanization, anonymity, and the law.
• Persistence in the Private Sphere: Caste continues to be a major factor in the private sphere, particularly in matters of marriage. The vast majority of marriages in India are still endogamous, taking place within the same caste, as is evident from the matrimonial advertisements in newspapers and online portals.
• Caste and Economy: There is a strong, though not perfect, correlation between caste and economic status. Upper-caste groups continue to have a disproportionate share of wealth and access to higher education and white-collar jobs. The Scheduled Castes and Tribes remain, on average, the most economically disadvantaged groups.
• Caste and Politics: Caste has acquired a new and powerful life in the political arena. Since the 1980s, Indian politics has seen the rise of caste-based political parties and mobilization. Caste identity has become a crucial factor in electoral politics, used as a basis for forming voting blocs and demanding a share of state power and resources.

Thus, while the traditional ritual and occupational basis of caste has declined, it has been transformed and re-invented as a powerful instrument of political and social identity in modern democratic India.

Tribal Communities

Tribal communities, also known as Adivasis (meaning 'original inhabitants') or Scheduled Tribes (STs) in the Indian Constitution, are communities that did not practice a religion with a written text, did not have a state or a sharp class division, and were not part of the caste system. They represent another significant dimension of India's social diversity.

Classifications Of Tribal Societies

Tribal societies in India are extremely diverse and can be classified based on various criteria.

Permanent Traits

This classification is based on relatively stable characteristics like region, language, physical features, and ecological habitat.

• Region: The tribal population is concentrated in specific regions, primarily in a central belt stretching from Rajasthan and Gujarat to West Bengal and Odisha, and in the North-Eastern states.
- Language: Tribal languages are broadly classified into linguistic families like the Austric, Tibeto-Burman, and Dravidian. - Ecological Habitat: Traditionally, tribes have been associated with specific habitats like hills, forests, and rural plains.

Acquired Traits

This classification is based on the mode of livelihood and the degree of integration with mainstream Hindu society.

• Mode of Livelihood: This includes categories like hunter-gatherers, shifting cultivators, settled agriculturists, and industrial workers.
• Integration with Hindu Society: Sociologists have classified tribes based on their level of assimilation into mainstream Hindu society, ranging from those who live in complete isolation to those who have been fully assimilated and have effectively become a caste group.

Tribe – The Career Of A Concept

The very concept of 'tribe' has been a subject of debate. The traditional definition, which saw tribes as isolated, pristine communities, has been challenged. Scholars now argue that most tribal communities have been in long-standing contact with mainstream society. The sharp distinction between 'caste' and 'tribe' has also been questioned, with many arguing that there is a continuum between the two.

Mainstream Attitudes Towards Tribes

The attitude of mainstream Indian society and the state towards Adivasis has historically been marked by a debate between two opposing views:

1. The Isolationist View: This view, often associated with the colonial period and some anthropologists, argued that tribal communities should be left alone and protected from the corrupting influence of the mainstream to preserve their unique culture.
2. The Integrationist View: This view, which became dominant after independence, argued that tribes were simply 'backward Hindus' and that the goal should be to integrate them into the mainstream of national life. This approach often viewed tribal culture as something to be overcome in the name of development.

Both these views were paternalistic and failed to consider the aspirations of the Adivasi communities themselves.

National Development Versus Tribal Development

The major source of conflict and struggle for Adivasi communities since independence has been the process of 'national development'. The territories inhabited by Adivasis are rich in forests, minerals, and water resources. The state's model of development, which has focused on building large dams, mines, and industrial plants, has been implemented primarily in these tribal areas. This has led to:

• Large-scale displacement of tribal populations from their ancestral lands.
• Loss of their traditional livelihoods based on forests and agriculture.
- Inadequate rehabilitation and compensation, leading to their impoverishment and transformation into a marginalized workforce.

From the Adivasi perspective, what is called 'national development' has often been a process of internal colonialism and exploitation.

Tribal Identity Today

In response to this history of dispossession and marginalization, there has been a rise of a new, assertive tribal identity in contemporary India. This has taken the form of various social and political movements.

• These movements are no longer just about preserving traditional culture but are about demanding a share in the fruits of development and asserting their rights as citizens.
• A key development has been the emergence of an educated tribal middle class, which has become the leadership of these movements.
- The movements have articulated a powerful critique of the mainstream development model and have demanded political autonomy and control over their own resources (jal, jangal, zameen). The creation of states like Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh is a direct outcome of these struggles.

Family And Kinship (In India)

The family is the most fundamental social institution, and in India, it is deeply intertwined with the systems of caste and kinship. Kinship refers to the network of relationships based on blood ties (consanguineal) or marriage (affinal). The family is the primary unit where these kinship relations are realized and experienced. It is the site of procreation, socialization, and economic cooperation.

Nuclear And Extended Family

As discussed in the general concepts, the two basic forms of the family are the nuclear and the extended family.

• Nuclear Family: Consists of a married couple and their unmarried children.
• Extended Family (or Joint Family): A family that extends beyond the nuclear family to include multiple generations (grandparents, parents, children) and collateral relatives (uncles, aunts, cousins) living together.

The 'joint family' has often been seen as the ideal and traditional family form in India. It is typically patriarchal (headed by the eldest male), patrilineal (descent traced through the male line), and patrilocal (newly married couple lives with the husband's family). However, sociological research has shown that the prevalence and structure of the joint family have always varied across different regions, castes, and classes.

The Diverse Forms Of The Family

The idea of a single, uniform family structure in India is a myth. The reality is one of immense diversity.

Matriliny and Matriarchy

While patriarchy is the dominant form, some communities in India have traditionally followed a matrilineal system.

• Matriliny: This is a system where descent is traced through the female line, and property is inherited by daughters from their mothers.
• Matriarchy: This is a system where women hold power and authority.

It is important to note that matriliny does not automatically mean matriarchy. In many matrilineal societies, such as the Khasis of Meghalaya and the Nairs of Kerala, while property passes through the female line, formal authority is often held by the woman's brother (the maternal uncle), not the woman herself. These systems, however, do provide women with a higher social status and greater security compared to patriarchal systems.

Changes in the Family Structure

The Indian family is undergoing significant changes due to processes like urbanization, migration, and modern education. There is a general trend towards the nuclearization of families, especially in urban areas. However, this does not mean the complete breakdown of the extended family. Even when people live in nuclear households, they often maintain strong functional ties with their wider kin group for support, rituals, and important life-cycle events.

In conclusion, the social institutions of caste, tribe, and family are not static, traditional relics. They are dynamic and changing institutions that continue to shape the social, economic, and political life of contemporary India in profound ways.